Philippine Supreme Court Jurisprudence > Year 1974 > September 1974 Decisions > Castro, J., Concurring : Separate Opinion : G.R. Nos. L-35546, L-35538, L-35539, L-35540, L-35547, L-35556, L-35567, L-35571 and L-35573 September 17, 1974 - G.R. No. L-35546. September 17, 1974. - IN THE MATTER OF THE PETITION FOR HABEAS CORPUS OF BENIGNO S. AQUINO, JR., RAMON MITRA, JR., FRANCISCO RODRIGO, AND NAPOLEON RAMA, Petitioners, v. HON. JUAN PONCE ENRILE, SECRETARY OF NATIONAL DEFENSE; GEN. ROMEO ESPINO, CHIEF OF STAFF, ARMED FORCES OF THE PHILIPPINES; AND GEN. FIDEL V. RAMOS, CHIEF, PHILIPPINE CONSTABULARY, Repondents : G.R. No. L-35538. September 17, 1974. - IN THE MATTER OF THE PETITION FOR HABEAS CORPUS OF JOAQUIN P. ROCES, TEODORO M. LOCSIN, SR., ROLANDO FADUL, ROSALIND GALANG, GO ENG GUAN, MAXIMO V. SOLIVEN, RENATO CONSTANTINO, AND LUIS R. MAURICIO, Petitioners, v. THE SECRETARY OF NATIONAL DEFENSE; THE CHIEF OF STAFF, ARMED FORCES OF THE PHILIPPINES; THE CHIEF, PHILIPPINE CONSTABULARY, Et Al. : G.R. No. L-35539. September 17, 1974. - IN THE MATTER OF THE PETITION FOR HABEAS CORPUS OF JOSE W. DIOKNO, CARMEN I. DIOKNO, v. JUAN PONCE ENRILE, THE SECRETARY OF NATIONAL DEFENSE; ROMEO ESPINO, THE CHIEF OF STAFF, ARMED FORCES OF THE PHILIPPINES : G.R. No. L-35540. September 17, 1974. _ MAXIMO V. SOLIVEN, NAPOLEON G. RAMA, AND JOSE MARI VELEZ, v. HON. JUAN PONCE ENRILE, SECRETARY OF NATIONAL DEFENSE; HON. FRANCISCO TATAD, PRESS SECRETARY; AND GEN. FIDEL V. RAMOS, CHIEF, PHILIPPINE CONSTABULARY : G.R. No. L-35547. September 17, 1974. - ENRIQUE VOLTAIRE GARCIA II, v. BRIG GEN. FIDEL RAMOS, CHIEF, PHILIPPINE CONSTABULARY; GEN. ROMEO ESPINO, CHIEF OF STAFF, ARMED FORCES OF THE PHILIPPINES; AND HON. JUAN PONCE ENRILE, SECRETARY OF NATIONAL DEFENSE : G.R. No. L-35556. September 17, 1974 - IN THE MATTER OF THE PETITION FOR HABEAS CORPUS OF VERONICA L. YUYITUNG AND TAN CHIN HIAN, v. JUAN PONCE ENRILE, SECRETARY OF NATIONAL DEFENSE; LIEUT. GEN. ROMEO ESPINO, CHIEF OF STAFF, ARMED FORCES OF THE PHILIPPINES; AND BRIG. GEN. FIDEL V. RAMOS, CHIEF OF THE PHILIPPINE CONSTABULARY : G.R. No. L-35567. September 17, 1974 - IN THE MATTER OF THE PETITION FOR HABEAS CORPUS OF AMANDO DORONILA, JUAN L. MERCADO, HERNANDO L. ABAYA, ERNESTO GRANADA, LUIS D. BELTRAN, TAN CHIN HIAN, BREN GUIAO, RUBEN CUSIPAG, ROBERTO ORDO�EZ, MANUEL ALMARIO AND WILLIE BAUN, v. HON. JUAN PONCE ENRILE, SECRETARY OF NATIONAL DEFENSE; LIEUT. GEN. ROMEO ESPINO, CHIEF OF STAFF, ARMED FORCES OF THE PHILIPPINES; AND BRIG. GEN. FIDEL V. RAMOS, CHIEF, PHILIPPINE CONSTABULARY : G.R. No. L-35571. September 17, 1974 - IN THE MATTER OF THE PETITION FOR HABEAS CORPUS OF BREN Z. GUIAO, TERESITA M. GUIAO, Petitioner, v. JUAN PONCE ENRILE, THE SECRETARY OF NATIONAL DEFENSE; LT. GEN. ROMEO ESPINO, CHIEF OF STAFF OF THE ARMED FORCES OF THE PHILIPPINES; AND BRIG. GEN. FIDEL V. RAMOS, CHIEF OF THE PHILIPPINE CONSTABULARY : G.R. No. L-35573. September 17, 1974 - ERNESTO RONDON, Petitioner, v. HON. JUAN PONCE ENRILE, SECRETARY OF NATIONAL DEFENSE; GEN. FIDEL V. RAMOS, CHIEF, PHILIPPINE CONSTABULARY; AND MAJOR RODULFO MIANA:

I

These nine cases are applications for writs of habeas corpus. The petitions aver in substance that on September 21, 1972 the President of the Philippines placed the country under martial law (Proclamation 1081); that on various dates from September 22 to September 30, 1972, the petitioners or the persons in whose behalf the applications were made were arrested by the military authorities and detained, some at Fort Bonifacio in Makati, Rizal, others at Camp Aguinaldo and still others at Camp Crame, both in Quezon City; and that the arrest and detention of the petitioners were illegal, having been effected without a valid order of a competent court of justice.chanroblesvirtualawlibrary:red

Writs of habeas corpuswere issued by the Court directing the respondents Secretary of National Defense, Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, and Chief of the Philippine Constabulary, to produce the bodies of the petitioners in Court on designated dates and to make returns to the writs. In due time the respondents, through the Solicitor General, filed their returns to the writs and answers to the petitions. Admitting that the petitioners had been arrested and detained, the respondents nevertheless justified such arrest and detention as having been legally ordered by the President of the Philippines pursuant to his proclamation of martial law, the petitioners being regarded as participants or as having given aid and comfort "in the conspiracy to seize political and state power and to take over the government by force." The respondents traversed the petitioners’ contention that their arrest and detention were unconstitutional.

Hearings were held on September 26 and 29 and October 6, 1972, at which the petitioners were produced in Court. Thereafter the parties filed memoranda.

Meanwhile, some of the petitioners, with leave of Court, withdrew their petitions; 1 others, without doing so, were subsequently released from custody under certain restrictive conditions. 2 Enrique Voltaire Garcia II, the sole petitioner in L-35547 and one of those released, having died shortly after his release, the action was deemed abated as to him.

As of this date only Jose W. Diokno, in whose behalf the petition in L-35539 was filed, and Benigno S. Aquino, Jr. in L-35546, are still in military custody.

On August 23, 1973 the petitioner Aquino filed an action for certiorariand prohibition with this Court, alleging that on August 11, 1973 charges of murder, subversion and illegal possession of firearms were filed against him with a military commission; that his trial by the military court which was to be held on August 27, 29 and 31, 1973 was illegal because the proclamation of martial law was unconstitutional; and that he could not expect a fair trial because the President of the Philippines, having prejudged his case, could reverse any judgment of acquittal by the military court and sentence him to death. That action, docketed as L-37364 and entitled "Benigno S. Aquino, Jr. v. Military Commission No. 2," is still pending consideration and decision.

On the other hand, Jose W. Diokno, on December 28, 1973, filed a motion to withdraw the petition filed in his behalf, imputing delay in the disposition of his case, and asseverating that because of the decision of the Court in the Ratification Cases 3 and the action of the members of the Court 4 in taking an oath to support the new Constitution, he cannot "reasonably expect to get justice in this case." The respondents oppose the motion on the grounds that there is a public interest in the decision of these cases and that the reasons given for the motion to withdraw are untrue, unfair and contemptuous.



The threshold question is whether to allow the withdrawal of the petition in L-35539 filed in behalf of Diokno. In his letter to his counsel, which is the basis of the motion to withdraw, Diokno states the following considerations: first, the delay in the disposition of his case; second, the dismissal of the petitions in the Ratification Cases, contrary to the Court’s ruling that the 1973 Constitution was not validly ratified; and third, the action of the members of the Court in taking an oath of allegiance to the new Constitution. Diokno asserts that "a conscience that allows a man to rot behind bars for more than one year and three months without trial � of course, without any charges at all � is a conscience that has become stunted, if not stultified," and that "in swearing to support the new ‘Constitution,’ the five members of the Court who had held that it had not been validly ratified, have not fulfilled our expectations." He goes on to say: "I do not blame them. I do not know what I would have done in their place But, at the same time, I can not continue to entrust my case to them; and I have become thoroughly convinced that our quest for justice in my case is futile."cralaw virtua1aw library

As already noted, the Solicitor General, in behalf of the respondents, opposes the withdrawal of the petition on the ground of public interest, adding that the motion to withdraw cannot be granted by the Court without in effect admitting the "unfair, untrue and contemptuous" statements contained therein.

Without passing on the liability of any party in this case for contemptuous statements made, the Court (by a vote of 5 to 7) denied the motion.

I voted for the denial of the motion to withdraw for inescapable reasons that I now proceed to expound.

The general rule is that in the absence of a statute expressly or impliedly prohibiting the withdrawal of an action, the party bringing such action may dismiss it even without the consent of the defendant or respondent where the latter will not be prejudiced, although it may be necessary to obtain leave of court. But there are recognized exceptions: when the public interest or questions of public importance are involved. 5 For example, the fact that a final determination of a question involved in an action is needed or will be useful as a guide for the conduct of public officers or tribunals is a sufficient reason for retaining an action which would or should otherwise be dismissed. Likewise, appeals may be retained if the questions involved are likely to arise frequently in the future unless they are settled by a court of last resort.

Thus, in Gonzales v. Commission on Elections, 6 an action for declaratory judgment impugning the validity of Republic Act No. 4880 which prohibits the early nomination of candidates for elective offices and early election campaigns or partisan political activities became moot by reason of the holding of the 1967 elections before decision could be rendered. Nonetheless the Court treated the petition as one for prohibition and rendered judgment in view of "the paramount public interest and the undeniable necessity for a ruling, the national elections [of 1969] being barely six months away."cralaw virtua1aw library

In Krivenko v. Register of Deeds, 7 the Court denied the petition to withdraw an appeal in view of the public importance of the questions involved, and lest "the constitutional mandate [proscribing the sale of lands to aliens] . . . be ignored or misconceived, with all the harmful consequences . . . upon the national economy."cralaw virtua1aw library

The petitioner Diokno has made allegations to the effect that the President has "arrogated" unto himself the powers of government by "usurping" the powers of Congress and "ousting" the courts of their jurisdiction, thus establishing in this country a "virtual dictatorship." Diokno and his counsel have in fact stressed that the present trend of events in this country since the proclamation of martial law hears a resemblance to the trend of events that led to the establishment of a dictatorship in Germany under Hitler. There is thus a profound public interest in the resolution of the questions raised in the cases at bar, questions that, in the phrase of Chief Justice Marshall in Marbury v. Madison, 8 are "deeply interesting to the nation." I apprehend that in view of the import of the allegations made by Diokno and his counsel, incalculable harm or, in the very least, great disservice may be caused to the national interest if these cases are not decided on the merits. As the Solicitor General has observed," petitioner’s [Diokno’s] arrest and detention have been so exploited in the hate campaign that the only way to protect the integrity of the government is to insist on a decision of this case in the forum in which the petitioner had chosen to bring them. Otherwise, like festering sores, the issues stirred up by this litigation will continue to agitate the nation."cralaw virtua1aw library

Prescinding from the policy considerations just discussed, I am gladdened that the Court has not shunted aside what I regard as the inescapable moral constraints in the petitioner Diokno’s motion to withdraw his petition for habeas corpus. 9 The Court repudiated the facile recourse of avoiding resolution of the issues on the pretext that Diokno insists on withdrawing his petition. It is thus not a mere happenstance that, notwithstanding that seven members of the Court are of the view that Diokno has an absolute right to withdraw his petition, the Court has confronted the issues posed by him, and now resolves them squarely, definitively and courageously. No respectable legal historian or responsible chronicler of the nation’s destiny will therefore have any reason to level the indictment that once upon a grave national crisis the Court abdicated its constitutional prerogative of adjudication and forswore the sacred trust reposed in it as the nation’s ultimate arbiter on transcendental, far-reaching justiciable questions.

With respect to the reasons given for the motion to withdraw, the Court is mindful that it has taken some time to resolve these cases. In explanation let it be said that the issues presented for resolution in these cases are of the utmost gravity and delicateness. No question of the awesome magnitude of those here presented has ever confronted the Court in all its history. I am not aware that any other court, except possibly the Circuit Court in Ex parte Merryman, 10 has decided like questions during the period of the emergency that called for the proclamation of martial law.

But then in Merryman the Court there held that under the U.S. Federal Constitution the President did not have power to suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. Otherwise, where the question involved not power but rather the exercise of power, courts have declined to rule against the duly constituted authorities while the emergency lasted. As Glendon Schubert noted, the U.S. Supreme Court "was unwilling to [do so] until the war was over and Lincoln was dead."cralaw virtua1aw library

Thus, in Ex parte Milligan, 11 the decision voiding the petitioner’s trial by a military court was not announced until December 14, 1866, after the Civil War was over. The Civil War began on May 3, 1861 with the capture of Fort Sumter by Confederate forces. Lambdin Milligan was charged before a military commission with aiding rebels, inciting insurrection, disloyal practices and violation of the laws of war. His trial ran from September to December 1862; he was convicted on October 21, 1864 and ordered executed on May 19, 1865. On May 10, 1865 he applied for a writ of habeas corpusfrom the Circuit Court of Indianapolis. On May 11, Justice Davis and Judge McDonald certified that they differed in opinion and, therefore, pursuant to the statute of 1802, elevated their questions to the Supreme Court. On June 3, 1865 the death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment by President Johnson who had succeeded to the Presidency after the assassination of Lincoln. The Supreme Court heard the parties’ arguments for eight days, on March 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12 and 13, and April 3, 1866. On December 14, 1866 the decision of the Supreme Court voiding Milligan’s trial was announced.

In In Re Moyer, 12 martial rule was proclaimed in Colorado on March 23, 1904. Application for a writ of habeas corpuswas filed with the State Supreme Court on April 14, 1904, seeking the release of Moyer who had been detained under the Colorado governor’s proclamation. On June 6, 1904 the complaint was dismissed and the petitioner was remanded to the custody of the military authorities. The Court held that as an incident to the proclamation of martial law, the petitioner’s arrest and detention were lawful. Moyer subsequently brought an action for damages for his imprisonment from March 30 to June 15, 1904. The complaint was dismissed by the Circuit Court. On writ of error, the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed, holding that "So long as such arrests are made in good faith and in the honest belief that they are needed in order to head the insurrection off, the governor is the final judge and cannot be subjected to an action after he is out of office, on the ground that he had no reasonable ground for his belief." 13

Finally, in Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 14 Hawaii was placed under martial rule on December 7, 1941, after the Japanese sneak attack on Pearl Harbor. The petitioner Duncan was tried by a provost court on March 2, 1944 and found guilty on April 13 of assault on two marine sentries. The other petitioner, White, was charged on August 25, 1942, also before a provost court, with embezzling stocks belonging to another civilian. White and Duncan questioned the power of the military tribunals in petitions for habeas corpusfiled with the District Court of Hawaii on March 14 and April 14, 1944, respectively. Writs were granted on May 2, 1944, and after trial the District Court held the military trials void and ordered the release of Duncan and White. On October 24, 1944 the privilege of the writ of habeas corpuswas restored and martial law was terminated in Hawaii. On appeal, the decision of the District Court was reversed. 15 Certiorariwas granted by the U.S. Supreme Court on February 12, 1945. 16 On February 25, 1946 the Court held that the trials of White and Duncan by the military tribunals were void.

In truth, as the Court in Milligan recognized, its decision could not have been made while the Civil War lasted. Justice Davis wrote:jgc:chanrobles.com.ph

"During the Wicked Rebellion, the temper of the times did not allow that calmness in deliberation and discussion so necessary to a correct conclusion of a purely judicial question. Then, considerations of safety were mingled with the exercise of power; and feelings and interests prevailed which are happily terminated. Now that the public safety is assured, this question, as well as all others, can be discussed and decided without passion or the admixture of any element not required to form a legal judgment. We approached the investigation of this case, fully sensible of the magnitude of the inquiry and the necessity of full and cautious deliberation." 17

No doubt there is a point, although controversial, in the observation that in the instances just examined a successful challenge was possible only retroactively, after the cessation of the hostilities which would under any circumstances have justified the judgment of the military. 18

Nor did it offend against principle or ethics for the members of this Court to take an oath to support the 1973 Constitution. After this Court declared that, with the dismissal of the petitions questioning the validity of the ratification of the new Constitution, there was "no longer any judicial obstacle to the new Constitution being considered in force and effect," 19 it became the duty of the members of the Court, let alone all other government functionaries, to. take an oath to support the new Constitution. While it is true that a majority of six justices declared that the 1973 Constitution was not validly ratified, it is equally true that a majority of six justices held that the issue of its effectivity was a political question, which the Court was not equipped to determine, depending as it did on factors for which the judicial process was not fit to resolve. Resolution of this question was dispositive of all the issues presented in the Ratification Cases. It thus became untenable for the members of the Court who held contrary opinions to press their opposition beyond the decision of those cases. Fundamental respect for the rule of law dictated that the members of the Court take an oath to uphold the new Constitution. There is nothing in that solemn oath that debases their individual personal integrity or renders them unworthy or incapable of doing justice in these cases. Nor did the environmental milieu of their adjuration in any manner demean their high offices or detract from the legitimacy of the Court as the highest judicial collegium of the land.



From its Anglo-Saxon origin and throughout its slow evolution, the concept, scope and boundaries, application, limitations and other facets of martial law have been the subject of misunderstanding, controversy and debate. 20 To the legal scholar interested in set legal principles and precise distinctions, martial law could be a frustrating subject. On the matter of its definition alone, it is known to have as many definitions as there are numerous authors and court decisions (not to discount the dissenting opinions) on the subject. The doctrinal development of martial law has relied mainly on case-law, 21 and there have been relatively few truly distinctive types of occasions where martial law, being the extraordinary remedy that it is, has been resorted to.

In the Philippines, the only other notable instance when martial law was declared was on September 22, 1944, per Proclamation No. 29 promulgated by President Jose P. Laurel. But this was pursuant to the constitution of the short-lived Japanese Occupation Republic, and the event has not been known to be productive of any jurisprudential pronouncements emanating from the high court of the land.

Notwithstanding the confused state of jurisprudence on the subject of martial law in England and in the United States, and, consequently, in the Philippines, a useful knowledge of the law on the subject can fairly be had from a study of its historical background and its rationale, its doctrinal development, applicable constitutional and statutory provisions, and authoritative court decisions and commentaries.

Legal scholars trace the genesis of martial law to England starting from the age of the Tudors and the Starts in the 14th century when it was first utilized for the suppression of rebellions and disorders. It later came to be employed in the British colonies and dominions where its frequent exercise against British subjects gave rise to the criticism that it was being exploited as a weapon to enhance British imperialism. 22

In the United States, martial law was declared on numerous occasions from the revolutionary period to the Civil War, and after the turn of the century. One of the earliest instances in American history was the declaration of martial law by Gen. Andrew Jackson before the Battle of New Orleans in 1814. Fearing that the New Orleans legislature might capitulate to the British, he placed the State under "strict martial law" and forbade the State legislature to convene. Martial law was lifted after the American victory over British arms. The Civil War period saw the declaration of martial law on many occasions by both the Confederate and the Union authorities. It has also been resorted to in cases of insurrection and rebellion, as exemplified by the Whiskey rebellion (1794 in Pennsylvania and Virginia) and the Dorr’s rebellion (1842 in Rhode Island). Martial law has also been utilized during periods of disaster, such as the San Francisco earthquake and fire of 1906, and in industrial disputes involving violence and disorder. It has likewise been variously instituted to police elections, to take charge of ticket sales at a football game, to prevent the foreclosure of mortgages to close a race track. In an extreme case, the governor of Georgia proclaimed martial law around a government building to exclude from its premises a public official whom he was enjoined from removing. 23

At the close of the World War I, the term "martial law" was erroneously employed to refer to the law administered in enemy territory occupied by the allied forces pending the armistice. 24 William Winthrop states that the earlier confusion regarding the concept of martial law, resulting partly from the wrong definition of the term by the Duke of Wellington who had said that "it is nothing more nor less than the will of the general," had misled even the Supreme Court of the United States. 25 In the leading case of Ex Parte Milligan, 26 however, Chief Justice Chase, in his dissenting opinion, clarified and laid down the classic distinctions between the types of military jurisdiction in relation to the terms "martial law," "military law" and "military government," which to a great extent cleared the confusion in the application of these terms.

These distinctions were later incorporated in the Manual for Courts-Martial of the United States Army, 27 after which the Manual for Courts-Martial of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, promulgated on December 17, 1938 pursuant to Executive Order No. 178, was patterned. In essence, these distinctions are as follows:chanrob1es virtual 1aw library

a. Military jurisdiction in relation to the term military law is that exercised by government in the execution of that branch of its municipal law which regulates its military establishment." (In the U.S. and the Philippines, this refers principally to the statutes which embody the rules of conduct and discipline of members of their respective armed forces. In the Philippines we have for this purpose Commonwealth Act No. 408, as amended, otherwise known as "The Articles of War").

b. Military jurisdiction in relation to the term military law i that "exercised in time of rebellion and civil war by a government temporarily governing the civil population of a locality through its military forces, without the authority of written law as necessity may require." 28

c. Military jurisdiction in relation to the term military government that "exercised by a belligerent occupying an enemy’s territory." 29 (A familiar example of a military government was, of course, that established and administered by the Japanese armed forces in the Philippines from 1942 to 1945).

What is the universally accepted fundamental justification of martial law? Wiener, in A Practical Manual of Martial Law, 30 ventures this justification: "Martial Law is the public law of necessity. Necessity calls it forth, necessity justifies its existence, and necessity measures the extent and degree to which it may be employed."cralaw virtua1aw library

Martial law is founded upon the principle that the state has a right to protect itself against those who would destroy it, and has therefore been likened to the right of the individual to self-defense. 31 It is invoked as an extreme measure, and rests upon the basic principle that every state has the power of self-preservation, a power inherent in all states, because neither the state nor society would exist without it. 32

I now proceed to discuss the issues posed in these cases.

In Proclamation 1081, dated September 21, 1972, the President of the Philippines declared that lawless elements, supported by a foreign power, were in "armed insurrection and rebellion against the Government of the Philippines in order to forcibly seize political and state power, overthrow the duly constituted government and supplant our existing political, social, economic and legal order with an entirely new one . . . based on the Marxist-Leninist-Maoist teachings and beliefs." He enumerated many and varied acts of violence committed in pursuance of the insurrection and rebellion. He therefore placed the Philippines under martial law, commanded the armed forces to suppress the insurrection and rebellion, enforce obedience to his decrees, orders and regulations, and arrest and detain those engaged in the insurrection and rebellion or in other crimes "in furtherance or on the occasion thereof, or incident thereto or in connection therewith." The President invoked his powers under article VII section 10(2) of the 1935 Constitution "to save the Republic and reform our society." 33

By General Order No. 2 the President directed the Secretary. of National Defense to "forthwith arrest or cause the arrest . . . the individuals named in the attached lists for being participants or for having given aid and comfort in the conspiracy to seize political and state power in the country and to take over the government by force . . . in order to prevent them from further committing acts that are inimical or injurious . . ." The Secretary was directed to hold in custody the individuals so arrested "until otherwise so ordered by me or by my duly designated representative:" The arrest and detention of the petitioners in these cases appear to have been made pursuant to this order.

I cannot blink away the stark fact of a continuing Communist rebellion in the Philippines. The Court has repeatedly taken cognizance of this fact in several cases decided by it. In 1971, in Lansang v. Garcia, 34 the Court, after reviewing the history of the Communist movement in the country since the 1930s, concluded: "We entertain, therefore, no doubts about the existence of a sizeable group of men who have publicly risen in arms to overthrow the government and have thus been and still are engaged in rebellion against the Government of the Philippines." It affirmed this finding in 1972 35 in sustaining the validity of the Anti-Subversion Act (Republic Act 1700). The Act is itself a congressional recognition and acute awareness of the continuing threat of Communist subversion to democratic institutions in this country. Enacted in 1957, it has remained in the statute books despite periodic agitation in many quarters for its total excision.

At times the rebellion required no more than ordinary police action, coupled with criminal prosecutions. Thus the 1932 Communist trials resulted in the conviction of the well-known Communists of the day: Crisanto Evangelista, Jacinto G. Manahan, Dominador J. Ambrosio, Guillermo Capadocia, Ignacio Nabong and Juan Feleo, among others, for crimes ranging from illegal association to rebellion and sedition. 36

The end of World War II saw the resurgence of the Communist rebellion. Now with an army forged out of the former Hukbalahaps (the armed resistance against the Japanese) and renamed Hukbong o Mapagpalaya ng Bayan or HMB, the threat to the security of the state became so malevolent that on October 22, 1950. President Elpidio Quirino was impelled to suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. This enabled the Government to effect the apprehension of top Communist Party leaders Guillermo Capadocia, Flavio Nava, Amado V. Hernandez, Jesus Lava Jose Lava, Angel Baking and Simeon Rodriguez, among others. 37 When challenged by one of those detained under the Presidential proclamation, the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpuswas sustained by the Court. 38

The beginning of the 1970s was marked by the rise of student activism. This phenomenon swept around the globe, and did not spare our own colleges and universities. Soon the campuses became staging grounds for student demonstrations that generally ended in bloody and not infrequently lethal street riots.

In Navarro v. Villegas, 39 in upholding the power of the Mayor of Manila to determine the place and time for the holding of public assemblies, this Court noted �

"That experiences in connection with present assemblies and demonstrations do not warrant the Court’s disbelieving respondent Mayor’s appraisal that a public rally at Plaza Miranda, as compared to one at the Sunken Gardens as he suggested, poses a clearer and more imminent danger of public disorders, breaches of the peace, criminal acts, and even bloodshed as an aftermath of such assemblies, and petitioner has manifested that it has no means of preventing such disorders;

"That, consequently, every time that such assemblies are announced, the community is placed in such a state of fear and tension that offices are closed early and employees dismissed storefronts boarded up, classes suspended, and transportation disrupted, to the general detriment of the public."cralaw virtua1aw library

Riding on the crest of student unrest, the Communist rebellion gained momentum. As the Court noted in Lansang v. Garcia, 40

"[T]he reorganized Communist Party of the Philippines has, moreover, adopted Mao’s concept of protracted people’s war, aimed at the paralyzation of the will to resist of the government, of the political, economic and intellectual leadership, and of the people themselves; that conformably to such concept the Party has placed special emphasis upon a most extensive and intensive program of subversion by the establishment of front organizations in urban centers, the organization of armed city partisans and the infiltration in student groups, labor unions, and farmer and professional groups; that the CPP has managed to infiltrate or establish and control nine (9) major labor organizations; that it has exploited the youth movement and succeeded in making Communist fronts of eleven (11) major student or youth organization; that there are, accordingly, about thirty (30) mass organizations actively advancing the CPP interests, among which are the Malayang Samahan ng Magsasaka (MASAKA), the Kabataang Makabayan (KM), the Movement for the Advancement of Nationalism (MAN), the Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan (SDK), the Samahang Molave (SM), and the Malayang Pagkakaisa ng Kabataang Pilipino (MPKP); that, as of August, 1971, the KM had two hundred forty-five (245) operational chapters throughout the Philippines of which seventy-three (73) were in the Greater Manila Area, sixty (60) in Northern Luzon, forty-nine (49) in Central Luzon, forty-two (42) in the Visayas and twenty-one (21) in Mindanao and Sulu; that in 1970, the Party had recorded two hundred fifty-eight (258) major demonstrations, of which about thirty-three (33) ended in violence, resulting in fifteen (15) killed and over five hundred (500) injured; that most of these actions were organized, coordinated or led by the aforementioned front organizations; that the violent demonstrations were generally instigated by a small, but well-trained group of armed agitators; that the number of demonstrations heretofore stated in 1971 has already exceeded those in 1970; and that twenty-four (24) of these demonstrations were violent, and resulted in the death of fifteen (15) persons and the injury of many more."cralaw virtua1aw library

The mounting level of violence necessitated the suspension, for the second time, of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpuson August 21, 1971. The Government’s action was questioned in Lansang v. Garcia. This Court found that the intensification and spread of Communist insurgency imperiled the state. The events after the suspension of the privilege of the writ confirmed the alarming extent of the danger to public safety:jgc:chanrobles.com.ph

"Subsequent events � as reported � have also proven that petitioner’s counsel have underestimated the threat to public safety posed by the New People’s Army. Indeed, it appears that, since August 21, 1971, it had in Northern Luzon six (6) encounters and staged one (1) raid, in consequence of which seven (7) soldiers lost their lives and two (2) others were wounded, whereas the insurgents suffered five (5) casualties; that on August 26, 1971, a well-armed group of NPA, trained by defector Lt. Victor Corpus, attacked the very command post of TF LAWIN in Isabela, destroying two (2) helicopters and one (1) plane, and wounding one (1) soldier; that the NPA had in Central Luzon a total of four (4) encounters, with two (2) killed and three (3) wounded on the side of the Government, one (1) BSDU killed and three (3) NPA casualties; that in an encounter at Botolan, Zambales, one (1) KM-SDK leader, an unidentified dissident, and Commander Panchito, leader of the dissident group, were killed; that on August 26, 1971, there was an encounter in the Barrio of San Pedro, Iriya City, Camarines Sur, between the PC and the NPA, in which a PC and two (2) KM members were killed; that the current disturbances in Cotabato and the Lanao provinces have been rendered more complex by the involvement of the CPP/NPA for, in mid-1971, a KM group, headed by Jovencio Esparagoza, contacted the Higa-onan tribes, in their settlement in Magsaysay, Misamis Oriental, and offered them books, pamphlets and brochures of Mao Tse Tung, as well as conducted teach-ins in the reservation; that Esparagoza was reportedly killed on September 22, 1971, in an operation of the PC in said reservation; and that there are now two (2) NPA cadres in Mindanao.

"It should, also, be noted that adherents of the CPP and its front organizations are according to intelligence findings, definitely capable of preparing powerful explosives out of locally available materials that the bomb used in the Constitutional Convention Hall was a ‘clay-more’ mine, a powerful explosive device used by the U.S. Army, believed to have been one of many pilfered from the Subic Naval Base a few days before; that the President had received intelligence information to the effect that there was a July-August Plan involving a wave of assassinations, kidnappings, terrorism and mass destruction of property and that an extraordinary occurrence would signal the beginning of said event; that the rather serious condition of peace and order in Mindanao, particularly in Cotabato and Lanao, demanded the presence therein of forces sufficient to cope with the situation; that a sizeable part of our armed forces discharges other functions; and that the expansion of the CPP activities from Central Luzon to other parts of the country, particularly Manila and its suburbs, the Cagayan Valley, Ifugao, Zambales, Laguna, Quezon and Bicol Region, required that the rest of our armed forces be spread thin over a wide area." 41

By virtue of these findings, the Court, led by Chief Justice Roberto Concepcion, unanimously upheld the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. The Court said:jgc:chanrobles.com.ph

"Considering that the President was in possession of the above data � except those related to events that happened after August 21, 1971 � when the Plaza Miranda bombing took place, the Court is not prepared to hold that the Executive had acted arbitrarily or gravely abused his discretion when he then concluded that public safety and national security required the suspension of the privilege of the writ, particularly if the NPA were to strike simultaneously with violent demonstrations staged by the two hundred forty-five (245) KM chapters, all over the Philippines, with the assistance and cooperation of the dozens of CPP front organizations, and the bombing of water mains and conduits, as well as electric power plants and installations � a possibility which, no matter how remote, he was bound to forestall, and a danger be was under obligation to anticipate and arrest.

"He had consulted his advisers and sought their views. He had reason to feel that the situation was critical � as, indeed, it was � and demanded immediate action. This he took believing in good faith that public safety required it. And, in the light of the circumstances adverted to above, be had substantial grounds to entertain such belief." 42

The suspension of the privilege of the writ was lifted on January 7, 1972 but soon thereafter chaos engulfed the nation again. A large area of the country was in open rebellion. The authority of the Government was frontally challenged by a coalition of forces. It was against this backdrop of violence and anarchy that martial law was proclaimed on September 21, 1972.

Personally, I take notice of this condition, in addition to what the Court has found in cases that have come to it for decision, and there is no cogent reason for me to say as a matter of law that the President exceeded his powers in declaring martial law. Nor do I believe that the Solicitor General’s manifestation of May 13, 1974 to the effect that while on the whole the military challenge to the Republic has been overcome there are still large areas of conflict which warrant the continued imposition of martial law, can be satisfactorily controverted by the petitioners or by any perceptive observer of the national scene.

As I will point out in this opinion, the fact that courts are open cannot be accepted as proof that the rebellion and insurrection, which compellingly called for the declaration of martial law, no longer imperil the public safety. Nor are the many surface indicia adverted to by the petitioners (the increase in the number of tourists, the choice of Manila as the site of international conferences and of an international beauty contest) to be regarded as evidence that the threat to public safety has abated. There is actual armed combat, attended by the somber panoply of war, raging in Sulu and Cotabato, not to mention the Bicol region and Cagayan Valley. 43 I am hard put to say therefore, that the government’s claim is baseless.

I am not insensitive to the plea made here in the name of individual liberty. But to paraphrase Ex parte Moyer, 44 if it were the liberty alone of the petitioner Diokno that is in issue we would probably resolve the doubt in his favor and grant his application. But the Solicitor General, who must be deemed to represent the President and the Executive Department in this case, 45 has manifested that in the President’s judgment peace and tranquility cannot be speedily restored in the country unless the petitioners and others like them meantime remain in military custody. For, indeed, the central matter involved is not merely the liberty of isolated individuals, but the collective peace, tranquility and security of the entire nation.

The 1935 Constitution committed to the President the determination of the public exigency or exigencies requiring the proclamation of martial law. It provided in article VII, section 10(2) that �

"The President shall be commander-in-chief of all armed forces of the Philippines and, whenever it becomes necessary, be may call out such armed forces to prevent or suppress lawless violence, 46 invasion, insurrection, or rebellion. In case of invasion, insurrection, or rebellion, or imminent danger thereof, when the public safety requires it, he may suspend the privileges of the writ of habeas corpusor place the Philippines or any part thereof under martial law." 47

In the 1934 Constitutional Convention it was proposed to vest the power to suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpusin the National Assembly. The proposal, sponsored by Delegate Araneta, would give this power to the President only in cases where the Assembly was not in session and then only with the consent of the Supreme Court. But the majority of the delegates entertained the fear that the Government would be powerless in the face of danger." 48 They rejected the Araneta proposal and adopted instead the provisions of the Jones Law of 1961. The framers of the Constitution realized the need for a strong Executive, and therefore chose to retain the provisions of the former organic acts, 49 which, adapted to the exigencies of colonial administration, naturally made the Governor General a strong Executive.

Construing a similar provision of the Philippine Bill of 1902 which authorized the Governor General, with the approval of the Philippine Commission, to suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus"when in cases of rebellion, insurrection, or invasion the public safety may require it," this Court held that the Governor General’s finding as to the necessity for such action was "conclusive and final" on the judicial department. 50 This ruling was affirmed in 1952 in Montenegro v. Castañeda, 51 this Court stating that �

"the authority to decide whether the exigency has arisen requiring the suspension belongs to the President and ‘his decision is final and conclusive’ upon the courts and upon all other persons."cralaw virtua1aw library

It is true that in Lansang v. Garcias 52 there is language that appears to detract from the uniform course of judicial construction of the Commander-in-Chief Clause. But a close reading of the opinion in that case shows that in the main there was adherence to precedents. To be sure, the Court there asserted the power to inquire into the "existence of the factual bases [for the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus] in order to determine the sufficiency thereof." But this broad assertion of power is qualified by the Court’s unambiguous statement that "the function of the Court is merely to check � not to supplant � the Executive, or to ascertain merely whether he has gone beyond the constitutional limits of his jurisdiction, not to exercise the power vested in him or to determine the wisdom of his act." For this reason this Court announced that the test was not whether the President acted correctly but whether he acted arbitrarily. In fact this Court read Barcelon and Montenegro as authorizing judicial inquiry into "whether or not there really was a rebellion, as stated in the proclamation therein contested."cralaw virtua1aw library

Of course the judicial department can determine the existence of the conditions for the exercise of the President’s powers and is not bound by the recitals of his proclamation. But whether in the circumstances obtaining public safety requires the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpusor the proclamation of martial law is initially for the President to decide. Considerations of commitment of the power to the executive branch of the Government and the lack of accepted standards for dealing with incommensurable factors, suggest the wisdom of considering the President’s finding as to necessity persuasive upon the courts. This conclusion results from the nature of the power vested in the President and from the evident object contemplated. For that power is intended to enable the Government to cope with sudden emergencies and meet great occasions of state under circumstances that may be crucial to the life of the nation. 53

The fact that courts are open and in the unobstructed discharge of their functions is pointed to as proof of the absence of any justification for martial law. The ruling in Milligan 54 and Duncan 55 is invoked. In both cases the U.S. Supreme Court reversed convictions by military commissions. In Milligan the Court stated that "martial law cannot arise from a threatened invasion. The necessity must be actual and present, the invasion real, such as effectually closes the courts and deposes the civil administration." In Duncan a similar expression was made: "The phrase ‘martial law’ . . . while intended to authorize the military to act vigorously for the maintenance of an orderly civil government and for the defense of the Islands against actual or threatened rebellion or invasion, was not intended to authorize the supplanting of courts by military tribunals."cralaw virtua1aw library

But Milligan and Duncan were decided on the basis of a widely disparate constitutional provision. What is more, to the extent that they may be regarded as embodying what the petitioners call an "open court" theory, they are of doubtful applicability in the context of present-day subversion.

Unlike the detailed provision of our Constitution, the U.S. Federal Constitution does not explicitly authorize the U.S. President to proclaim martial law. It simply states in its article II, section 2 that "the President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States. . . ." On the other hand, our Constitution authorizes the proclamation of martial law in cases not only of actual invasion, insurrection or rebellion but also of "imminent danger" thereof.

It is true that in Duncan the U.S. Supreme Court dealt with a U.S. statute that in terms was similar to the Philippine Constitution. Section 67 of the Hawaiian Organic Act provided that "[the Territorial Governor] may, in case of invasion, or imminent danger thereof, when public safety requires it, suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, or place the Territory, or any part thereof under martial law until communication can be had with the President [of the United States] and his decision thereon made known." In fact the Hawaiian Organic Act, that of Puerto Rico, and the Jones Law of 1916, from which latter law, as I have earlier noted, the Commander-in-Chief Clause of our Constitution was adopted, were part of the legislation of the U.S. Congress during the colonial period. But again, unlike the Jones Law, the Hawaiian Organic Act also provided in its section 5 that the U.S. Federal Constitution "shall have the same force and effect in the Territory [of Hawaii] as elsewhere in the United States. For this reason it was held in Duncan that "imminent danger" of invasion or rebellion was not a ground for authorizing the trial of civilians by a military tribunal. Had Duncan been decided solely on the basis of Section 67 of the Hawaiian Organic Act and had the petitioners in that case been tried for offenses connected with the prosecution of the war, 56 the prison sentences imposed by the military tribunals would in all probability had been upheld. As a matter of fact those who argued in Duncan that the power of the Hawaiian governor to proclaim martial law comprehended not only actual rebellion or invasion but also "imminent danger thereof" were faced with the problem of reconciling the two parts of the Hawaiian Organic Act. They contended that "if any part of Section 67 would otherwise be unconstitutional Section 5 must be construed as extending the [U.S.] Constitution to Hawaii subject to the qualifications or limitations contained in Section 67." 57

For soothe, if the power to proclaim martial law is at all recognized in American federal constitutional law, it is only by implication from the necessity of self-preservation and then subject to the narrowest possible construction.

Nor is there any State Constitution in the United States, as the appended list indicates (see Appendix), which in scope and explicitness can compare with the Commander-in-Chief Clause of our Constitution. The Alaska Constitution, for example, authorizes the governor to proclaim martial law when the public safety requires it in case of rebellion or actual or imminent invasion. But even then it also provides that martial law shall not last longer than twenty days unless approved by a majority of the legislature in joint session. On the other hand, the present Constitution of Hawaii does not grant to the State governor the power to suspend the writ of habeas corpusor to proclaim martial law as did its Organic Act before its admission as a State to the American Union.

An uncritical reading of Milligan and Duncan is likely to overlook these crucial differences in textual concepts between the Philippine Constitution, on the one hand, and the Federal and State Constitutions of the United States, on the other. In our case then the inclusion of the "imminent danger" phrase as a ground for the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpusand for the proclamation of martial law was a matter of deliberate choice and renders the language of Milligan ("martial law cannot arise from a threatened invasion") inapposite and therefore inapplicable.

The Philippine Bill of 1902 provided in its section 2, paragraph 7 �

"that the privilege of the writ of habeas corpusshall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion, insurrection, or invasion the public safety may require it, in either of which events the same may be suspended by the President, or by the Governor General with the approval of the Philippine Commission, wherever during such period the necessity for such suspension shall exist."cralaw virtua1aw library

The Jones Law of 1916 substantially reenacted this provision. Thus section 3, paragraph 7 thereof provided:jgc:chanrobles.com.ph

"That the privilege of the writ of habeas corpusshall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion, insurrection, or invasion the public safety may require it, in either of which events the same may he suspended by the President or by the Governor General, wherever during such period the necessity for such suspension shall exist."cralaw virtua1aw library

In addition, the Jones Law provided in its section 21 that �

". . . [The Governor General] may, in case of rebellion or invasion, or imminent danger thereof, when the public safety requires it, suspend the privileges of the writ of habeas corpus, or place the Islands, or any part thereof, under martial law: Provided, That whenever the Governor General shall exercise this authority, he shall at once notify the President of the United States thereof, together with the attending facts and circumstances, and the President shall have power to modify or vacate the action of the Governor General."cralaw virtua1aw library

Note that with respect to the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, section 21 mentions, as ground therefor, "imminent danger" of invasion or rebellion. When the Constitution was drafted in 1934, its framers, as I have already noted, decided to adopt these provisions of the Jones Law. What was section 3, paragraph 7, in the Jones Law became section 1(14) of article III (Bill of Rights) of the Constitution; and what was section 21 became article VII, section 10(2) (Commander-in-Chief Clause). Thus, the Bill of Rights provision reads:jgc:chanrobles.com.ph

"The privilege of the writ of habeas corpusshall not be suspended except in cases of invasion, insurrection, or rebellion, when the public safety requires it, in any of which events the same may be suspended wherever during such period the necessity for such suspension shall exist."cralaw virtua1aw library

On the other hand, the Commander-in-Chief Clause states:jgc:chanrobles.com.ph

"The President shall be commander-in-chief of all armed forces of the Philippines and, whenever it becomes necessary, he may call out such armed forces to prevent or suppress lawless violence invasion, insurrection, or rebellion. In case of invasion, insurrection or rebellion, or imminent danger thereof, when the public safety requires it, he may suspend the privileges of the writ of habeas corpus, or place the Philippines or any part thereof under martial law.

The attention of the 1934 Convention was drawn to the apparent inconsistency between the Bill of Rights provision and the Commander-in-Chief Clause. Some delegates tried to harmonize the two provisions by inserting the phrase "imminent danger thereof" in the Bill of Rights provision, but on reconsideration the Convention deleted the phrase from the draft of the Bill of Rights provision, at the same time retaining it in the Commander-in Chief Clause.

When this apparent inconsistency was raised in a suit 58 questioning the validity of President Quirino’s suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, this Court sustained the President’s power to suspend the privilege of the writ even on the ground of imminent danger of invasion, insurrection or rebellion. It held that as the Commander-in-Chief Clause was last in the order of time and local position it should be deemed controlling. This rationalization has evoked the criticism that the Constitution was approved as a whole and not in parts, but in result the decision in that case is certainly consistent with the conception of a strong Executive to which the 1934 Constitutional Convention was committed.

The 1973 Constitution likewise authorizes the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpuson the ground of imminent danger of invasion, insurrection or rebellion.

The so-called "open court" theory does not apply to the Philippine situation because our 1935 and 1973 Constitutions expressly authorize the declaration of martial law even where the danger to public safety arises merely from the imminence of invasion, insurrection, or rebellion. Moreover, the theory is too simplistic for our day, what with the universally recognized insidious nature of Communist subversion and its covert operations.

Indeed the theory has been dismissed as unrealistic by perceptive students of Presidential powers.

Charles Fairman says:jgc:chanrobles.com.ph

"These measures are unprecedented but so is the danger that called them into being. Of course we are not without law, even in time of crisis. Yet the cases to which one is cited in the digests disclose such confusion of doctrine as to perplex a lawyer who suddenly tries to find his bearings. Hasty recollection of Ex parte Milligan recalls the dictum that ‘Martial rule cannot arise from a threatened invasion. The necessity must be actual and present; the invasion real, such as effectually closes the courts and deposes the civil administration.’ Not even the aerial attack upon Pearl Harbor closed the courts or of its own force deposed the civil administration; yet it would he the common understanding of men that those agencies which are charged with the national defense surely must have authority to take on the spot some measures which in normal times would be ultra vires. And whilst college sophomores are taught that the Milligan case stands as a constitutional landmark, the hard fact is that of late governors have frequently declared ‘martial law’ and ‘war’ and have been judicially sustained in their measures. Undoubtedly, many of these eases involving the suspension of strikers went much too far. But just as certainly � so it will be argued here � the doctrine of the majority in Ex parte Milligan does not go far enough to meet the conditions of modern war." 59

Clinton Rossiter writes:jgc:chanrobles.com.ph

"It is simply not true that ‘martial law cannot arise from a threatened invasion,’ or that ‘martial rule can never exist where the courts are open.’ These statements do not present an accurate definition of the allowable limits of the martial powers of the President and Congress in the face of alien, threats of internal disorder. Nor was Davis’ dictum on the specific power of Congress in this matter any more accurate. And, however eloquent and quotable his words on the untouchability of the Constitution in time of actual crisis, they do not now, and did not then, express the realities of American constitutional law." 60

William Winthrop makes these thoughtful observations:jgc:chanrobles.com.ph

"It has been declared by the Supreme Court in Ex parte Milligan that ‘martial law’ is ‘confined to the locality of actual war,’ and also that it ‘can never exits when the courts are open and in the proper and unobstructed exercise of their jurisdiction.’ But this ruling was made by a bare majority � five � of the court, at a time of great political excitement, and the opinion of the four other members, as delivered by the Chief Justice, was to the effect that martial law is not necessarily limited to time of war, but may be exercised at other periods of ‘public danger.’ and that the fact that the civil courts are open is not controlling against such exercise, since they ‘might be open and undisturbed in the execution of their functions and yet wholly incompetent to avert threatened danger or to punish with adequate promptitude and certainty the guilty.’ It is the opinion of the author that the view of the minority of the court is the sounder and more reasonable one, and that the dictum of the majority was influenced by a confusing of martial law proper with that military government which exists only at a time and on the theater of war, and which was clearly distinguised from martial law by the Chief Justice in the dissenting opinion � the first complete judicial definition of the subject." 61 (Emphasis supplied)

In Queen v. Bekker (on the occasion of the Boer War) Justice Maasdorp categorically affirmed that "the existence of civil courts is no proof that martial law has become unnecessary." 62



Given then the validity of the proclamation of martial law, the arrest and detention of those reasonably believed to be engaged in the disorder or in fomenting it is well nigh beyond questioning. Negate the power to make such arrest and detention, and martial law would be "mere parade, and rather encourage attack than repel it." 63 Thus, in Moyer v. Peabody, 64 the Court sustained the authority of a State governor to hold temporarily in custody one whom he believed to be engaged in fomenting trouble, and denied recovery against the governor for the imprisonment. It was said that, as the governor "may kill persons who resist," he "may use the milder measure of seizing the bodies of those whom he considers in the way of restoring peace. Such arrests are not necessarily for punishment, but are by way of precaution to prevent the exercise of hostile power. So long as such arrests are made in good faith and in the honest belief that they are needed in order to head the insurrection off, the Governor is the final judge and cannot be subjected to an action after he is out of office on the ground that he had no reasonable ground for his belief."cralaw virtua1aw library

It is true that in Sterling v. Constantin 65 the same Court set aside the action of a State governor taken under martial law. But the decision in that case rested on the ground that the action set aside had no direct relation to the quelling of the uprising. There the governor of Texas issued a proclamation stating that certain counties were in a state of insurrection and declaring martial law in that territory. The proclamation recited that there was an organized group of oil and gas producers in insurrection against conservation laws of the State and that this condition had brought such a state of public feeling that if the State government could not protect the public’s interest they would take the law into their own hands. The proclamation further recited that it was necessary that the Railroad Commission be given time to make orders regarding oil production. When the Commission issued an order limiting oil production, the complainants brought suit in the District Court which issued restraining orders, whereupon Governor Sterling ordered General Welters of the Texas National Guards to enforce a limit on oil production. It was this order of the State governor that the District Court enjoined. On appeal the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed. After assuming that the governor had the power to declare martial law, the Court held that the order restricting oil production was not justified by the exigencies of the situation.

". . . Fundamentally, the question here is not the power of the Governor to proclaim that a state of insurrection, or tumult, or riot, or breach of the peace exists, and that it is necessary to call military force to the aid of the civil power. Nor does the question relate to the quelling of disturbance and the overcoming of unlawful resistance to civil authority. The question before us is simply with respect to the Governor’s attempt to regulate by executive order the lawful use of complainants’ properties in the production of oil. Instead of affording them protection in the exercise of their rights as determined by the courts, he sought, by his executive orders, to make that exercise impossible."cralaw virtua1aw library

On the other hand, what is involved here is the validity of the detention order under which the petitioners were ordered arrested. Such order is, as I have already stated, a valid incident of martial law. With respect to such question Constantin held that "measures, conceived in good faith, in the face of the emergency and directly related to the quelling of the disorder or the prevention of its continuance, fall within the discretion of the Executive in the exercise of his authority to maintain peace."cralaw virtua1aw library

In the cases at bar, the respondents have justified the arrest and detention of the petitioners on the ground of reasonable belief in their complicity in the rebellion and insurrection. Except Diokno and Aquino, all the petitioners have been released from custody, although subject to defined restrictions regarding personal movement and expression of views. As the danger to public safety has not abated, I cannot say that the continued detention of Diokno and Aquino and the restrictions on the personal freedoms of the other petitioners are arbitrary, just as I am not prepared to say that the continued imposition of martial rule is unjustified.

As the Colorado Supreme Court stated in denying the writ of habeas corpusin Moyer: 66

"His arrest and detention in such circumstances are merely to prevent him from taking part or aiding in a continuation of the conditions which the governor, in the discharge of his official duties and in the exercise of the authority conferred by law, is endeavoring to suppress."cralaw virtua1aw library



While courts may inquire into or take judicial notice of the existence of conditions claimed to justify the exercise of the power to declare martial law, 67 the determination of the necessity for the exercise of such power is within the periphery of the constitutional domain of the President; and as long as the measures he takes are reasonably related to the occasion involved, interference by the courts is officious.

I am confirmed in this construction of Presidential powers by the consensus of the 1971 Constitutional Convention to strengthen the concept of a strong Executive and by the confirmation of the validity of acts taken or done after the proclamation of martial law in this country. The 1973 Constitution expressly authorizes the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas Corpus as well as the imposition of martial law not only on the occasion of actual invasion, insurrection or rebellion, but also where the danger thereof is imminent. 68 Acrimonious discussion on this matter has thus become pointless and should therefore cease.

The new Constitution as well provides that �

"All proclamations, orders, decrees, instructions, and acts promulgated, issued, or done by the incumbent President shall be part of the law of the land, and shall remain valid, legal, binding, and effective even after lifting of martial law or the ratification of this Constitution, unless modified, revoked, or superseded by subsequent proclamations, orders, decrees, instructions, or other acts of the incumbent President, or unless expressly and explicitly modified or repealed by the regular National Assembly." 69

The effectivity of the new Constitution is now beyond all manner of debate in view of the Court’s decision in the Ratification Cases 70 as well as the demonstrated acquiescence therein by the Filipino people in the historic July 1973 national referendum.



It is thus evident that suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpusis unavoidably subsumed in a declaration of martial law, since one basic objective of martial rule is to neutralize effectively � by arrest and continued detention (and possibly trial at the proper and opportune time) � those who are reasonably believed to be in complicity or are particeps criminis in the insurrection or rebellion. That this is so and should be so is ineluctable; to deny this postulate is to negate the very fundament of martial law: the preservation of society and the survival of the state. To recognize the imperativeness and reality of martial law and at the same time dissipate its efficacy by withdrawing from its ambit the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, is a proposition I regard as fatuous and therefore repudiate.

"Invasion and insurrection, both of them conditions of violence, are the factual prerequisites of martial law . . . The rights of person and property present no obstruction to the authorities acting under such a regime, if the acts which encroach upon them are necessary to the preservation or restoration of public order and safety. Princeps et res publica ex justa causa possunt rem meam auferre. All the procedures which are recognized adjuncts of executive crisis government . . . are open to the persons who hear official authority under martial law. The government may wield arbitrary powers of police to allay disorder, arrest and detain without trial all citizens taking part in this disorder and even punish them (in other words, suspended the [privilege of the] writ of habeas corpus), institute searches and seizures without warrant, forbid public assemblies, set curfew hours, suppress all freedom of expression, institute courts-martial for the summary trial of crimes perpetrated in the course of this regime and calculated to defeat its purposes." 71 (Emphasis supplied)

"The point here is whether martial law is simply a shorthand expression denoting the suspension of the writ, or whether martial law involves not only the suspension of the writ but much more besides. . . . The latter view is probably sounder because martial law, certainly in the present state of its development, is not at all dependent on a suspension of the writ of habeas corpus. . . . Where there has been violence or disorder in fact, continued detention of offenders by the military is so far proper as to result in a denial by the courts of writs releasing those detained. . . ." 72



Although the respondents, in their returns to the writs and in their answers to the several petitions, have insisted on a disclaimer of the jurisdiction of this Court, on the basis of General Orders Nos. 3 and 3-A, 73 their subsequent manifestations urging decision of these cases amount to an abandonment of this defense. In point of fact President Marcos has written, in unmistakable phrase, that "Our martial law is unique in that it is based on the supremacy of the civilian authority over the military and on complete submission of the decision of the Supreme Court For who is the dictator who would submit himself to a higher body like the Supreme Court on the question of the constitutionality or validity of his actions?" 74 Construing this avowal of the President and the repeated urgings of the respondents in the light of the abovequoted provision of the 1973 Constitution (Art. XVII, sec. 3(2)), it is my submission that General Orders Nos. 3 and 3-A must be deemed revoked in so far as they tended to oust the judiciary of jurisdiction over cases involving the constitutionality of proclamations, decrees, orders or acts issued or done by the President.



In sum and substance, I firmly adhere to these views: (1) that the proclamation of martial law in September 1972 by the President was well within the aegis of the 1935 Constitution; (2) that because the Communist rebellion had not abated and instead the evil ferment of subversion had proliferated throughout the archipelago and in many places had exploded into the roar of armed and searing conflict with all the sophisticated panoply of war, the imposition of martial law was an "imperative of national survival;" (3) that the arrest and detention of persons who were "participants or gave aid and comfort in the conspiracy to seize political and state power and to take over the government by force," were not unconstitutional nor arbitrary; (4) that subsumed in the declaration of martial law is the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus; (5) that the fact that the regular courts of justice are open cannot he accepted as proof that the rebellion and insurrection, which compellingly called for the declaration of martial law, no longer imperil the public safety; (6) that actual armed combat has been and still is raging in Cotabato, Lanao, Sulu and Zamboanga, not to mention the Bicol Region and Cagayan Valley, and nationwide Communist subversion continues unabated; (7) that the host of doubts that had plagued this Court with respect to the validity of the ratification and consequent effectivity of the 1973 Constitution has been completely dispelled by every rational evaluation of the national referendum of July 1973, at which the people conclusively, albeit quietly, demonstrated nationwide acquiescence in the new Constitution; and (8) that the issue of the validity and constitutionality of the arrest and detention of all the petitioners and of the restrictions imposed upon those who were subsequently freed, is now foreclosed by the transitory provision of the 1973 Constitution (Art. XVII. Sec. 3(2)) which efficaciously validates all acts made, done or taken by the President, or by others upon his instructions, under the regime of martial law, prior to the ratification of the said Constitution.



It is not a mere surreal suspicion on the part of the petitioner Diokno that the incumbent members of this highest Tribunal of the land have removed themselves from a level of conscience to pass judgment upon his petition for habeas corpusor afford him relief from his predicament. He has actually articulated it as a formal indictment. I venture to say that his obsessional preoccupation on the ability of this Court to reach a fair judgment in relation to him has been, in no small measure, engendered by his melancholy and bitter and even perhaps traumatic detention. And even as he makes this serious indictment, he at the same time would withdraw his petition for habeas corpus� hoping thereby to achieve martyrdom, albeit dubions and amorphous. As a commentary on this indictment, I here declare that for my part � and I am persuaded that all the other members of this Court are situated similarly � I avow fealty to the full intendment and meaning of the oath I have taken as a judicial magistrate. Utilizing the modest endowments that God has granted me, I have endeavored in the past eighteen years of my judicial career � and in the future will always endeavor � to discharge faithfully the responsibilities appurtenant to my high office, never fearing, wavering or hesitating to reach judgments that accord with my conscience.

ACCORDINGLY, I vote to dismiss all the petitions.



ALASKA CONST., art. III, sec. 20:chanrob1es virtual 1aw library

Sec. 20. Martial law. The governor may proclaim martial law when the public safety requires it in case of rebellion or actual or imminent invasion. Martial law shall not continue for longer than twenty days without the approval of a majority of the members of the legislature in joint session.

MAINE CONST., art. I, sec. 14:chanrob1es virtual 1aw library

Sec. 14. Corporal punishment under military law. No person shall be subject to corporal punishment under military law, except such as are employed in the army or navy, or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public danger.

MARYLAND CONST., art. 32:chanrob1es virtual 1aw library

Art. 32. Martial Law. That no person except regular soldiers, marines, and mariners in the service of this State, or militia, when in actual service, ought, in any case, to be subject to, or punishable by Martial Law.

MASSACHUSETTS CONST., art. XXVIII:chanrob1es virtual 1aw library

Art. XXVIII. Citizens exempt from law martial. No person can in any case be subjected to law martial, or to any penalties or pains, by virtue of that law, except those employed in the army or navy, and except the militia in actual service, but by authority of the legislature

NEW HAMPSHIRE, Pt. II, arts. 34 and 51:chanrob1es virtual 1aw library

Art. 34th. Martial law limited. No person can, in any case, be subjected to law martial, or to any pains or penalties by virtue of that law, except those employed in the army or navy, and except the militia in actual service, but by authority of the legislature.

Art. 51st. Powers and duties of governor as commander-in-chief; limitation. The governor of this state for the time being, shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and all the military forces of the state, by sea and land; and shall have full power by himself, or by any chief commander, or other officer, or officers, from time to time, to train, instruct, exercise and govern the militia and navy; and for the special defense and safety of this state, to assemble in martial array, and put in war-like posture, the inhabitants thereof, and to lead and conduct them, and with them to encounter, repulse, repel, resist and pursue by force of arms, as well by sea as by land, within and without the limits of this state: and also kill, slay, destroy, if necessary, and conquer by all fitting ways, enterprise and means, all and every such person and persons as shall, at any time hereafter, in a hostile manner, attempt or enterprise the destruction, invasion, detriment or annoyance of this state; and to use and exercise over the army and navy, and over the militia in actual service, the law martial in time of war, invasion, and also in rebellion, declared by the legislature to exist, as occasion shall necessarily require: And surprise, by all ways and means whatsoever, all and every such person or persons, with their ships, arms, ammunition, and other goods, as shall in a hostile manner invade, or attempt the invading, conquering or annoying this state; and in fine the governor hereby is entrusted with all other powers incident to the office of the captain-general and commander-in-chief, and admiral, to be exercised agreeably to the rules and regulations of the constitution, and the laws of the land; provided, that the Governor shall not, at any time hereafter, by virtue of any power by this constitution granted, or hereafter to be granted to him by the legislature, transport any of the inhabitants of this state, or oblige them to march out of the limits of the same, without their free and voluntary consent, or the consent of the general court, nor grant commissions for exercising the law martial in any case, without the advise and the consent of the council.

RHODE ISLAND CONST., art. I, sec. 18:chanrob1es virtual 1aw library

Sec. 18. Military subordinate; martial law. The military shall be held in strict subordination to the civil authority. And the law martial shall be used and exercised in such cases only as occasion shall necessarily require.

TENNESSEE CONST., art. I, sec. 25:chanrob1es virtual 1aw library

Sec. 25. Punishment under martial and military law. That no citizen of this State, except such as are employed in the army of the United States, or militia in actual service, shall be subjected to punishment under the martial or military law. That martial law, in the sense of the unrestricted power of military officers, or others, to dispose of the persons, liberties or property of the citizen, is inconsistent with the principles of free government, and is not confided to any department of the government of this State.

VERMONT CONST ., ch. 1, art. 17:chanrob1es virtual 1aw library

Art. 17th. Martial law restricted. That no person in this state can in any case be subjected to law martial, or to any penalties or pains by virtue of that law except those employed in the army, and the militia in actual service.

WEST VIRGINIA, art. III, sec. 12:chanrob1es virtual 1aw library

Art. III, sec. 12. Military subordinate to civil power. Standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided as dangerous to liberty. The military shall be subordinate to the civil power; and no citizen, unless engaged in the military service of the State, shall be tried or punished by any military court, for any offense that is cognizable by the civil courts of the State. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, except in the manner to be prescribed by law.

Endnotes:

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1. The following individuals, on their own motions, were allowed to withdraw their petitions: Veronies L. Yuyitung (Supreme Court Res. Oct. 6, 1972) and Tan Chin Hian (Res. Oct. 11, 1972) in L-35556; Amando Doronila, Hernando J. Abaya, Ernesto Granada, Luis D. Beltran, Bren Guiao, Ruben Cusipag and Willie Baun (Res. Oct. 3, 1972; Res. Oct. 11, 1972) in L-35567; Teresita M. Guiao in behalf of Bren Guiao (who was also a petitioner in L-35567 (Res. Oct. 9, 1972) in L-35571.

2. The following a individuals have since been released from custody: Joaquin P. Roces, Teodoro M. Locsin, Sr., Rolando Fadul, Rosalind Galang, Go Eng Guan, Renato Constantino and Luis R. Mauricio, all of whom were petitioners in L-35538; Maximo V. Soliven, Napoleon G. Rama and Jose Mari Velez in L-35540; Ramon Mitra, Jr., Francisco Rodrigo and Napoleon Rama in L-35546 Enrique Voltaire Garcia II (deceased) in L-35547; Tan Chin Hian and Veronica Yuyitung in L-35556; Amando Doronila, Juan L. Mercado, Hernando J. Abaya, Ernesto Granada, Luis D. Beltran, Ruben Cusipag, Roberto Ordoñez, Manuel Almario and Willie Baun in L-35567; Ernesto Rondon in L-35573; and Bren Z. Guia in L-35571.

3. Javellana v. Executive Secretary, L-36142, March 31, 1973, 50 SCRA 30.

4. Chief Justice Makalintal and Associate Justices Zaldivar, Castro, Fernando, Teehankee, Barredo, Makasiar, Antonio and Esguerra.

5. See Anno., Public Interest as Ground for Refusal to Dismiss an Appeal where Question has Become Moot to Dismissal is Sought by One or Both Parties, 132 A.L.R. 1185 to 1200; Willis v. Buchman, 132 A.L.R. 1179; State ex rel. Traub v. Brown (1938), 197 A 478; Melson v. Shetterley (1933), 95 Ind. App. 538, 183 NE 802.

6. L-27833, April 18, 1969, 27 SCRA 835.

7. 79 Phil. 461 (1947).

8. 1 Branch 137, 2 L. ed. 60 (1803).

9. Personally, I view this motion as a heretofore unheard-of curiosity. I cannot comprehend Diokno’s real motivation, since granting his motion could conceivably result in his indefinite detention.

10. 17 Fed. Cas. 144, Case No. 9487 (C.C.D. Md. 1861).

11. 4 Wall. 2, 18 L. ed. 281 (1866).

12. 35 Colo. 159 85 Pac. 190 (1904).

13. Moyer v. Peabody, 212 U.S. 78, 53 L. ed. 410 (1909).

14. 327 U.S. 304, 90 L. ed. 688 (1946).

15. 146 F. 2d 576 (C.C.A. 9th, 1944).

16. 324 U.S. 833, 89 L. ed. 1398 (1945).

17. Supra, note 10.

18. Schubert, The Presidency in the Courts, n. 54, p. 185 (1957).

19. Supra, note 3.

20. See 14 Encyclopedia Britannica, pp. 984-985 (1945).

21. England has an unwritten constitution, there is not even a bare mention of martial law in the Federal and in most of the State constitutions of the United States (see Appendix to this separate opinion), and there is a paucity or complete absence of statutes or codes governing it in the various common-law jurisdictions where it has been instituted.

22. Fairman, The Law of Martial Rule (2nd ed., 1943), pp. 2, 52 and 45.

23. Fairman, Id., pp. 94, 103, 108-109; Walker, Military Law (1954) ed.), p. 475.

24. Fvaental, Military Occupation and the Rule of Law (1944 ed.), pp. 9, 24, 27, 31, 42-44.

25. Winthrop, Military Law & Precedents (2nd ed., 1920), p. 799.

26. 4 Wallace, 2, 18 L. ed. 281 (1866).

27. Winthrop, id., p. 817.

28. Commonwealth Act No. 408 recognizes the eventuality of the declaration of martial law in its Articles of War 2, 37, 82 and 83. The AFP Manual for Courts-Martial defines martial law as "the exercise of military jurisdiction by a government temporarily governing the civil population of a locality through its military forces, without authority of written law, as necessity may require." Martial law, as thus exercisable, is in many respects comparable to the state of siege of the continental nations of Europe.

29. See Manual for Courts-Martial (AFP), p. 1. Willoughby observes that "Where martial law is invoked in the face of invasion, it is war pure and simple, and it is in this sense that Field defines martial law as ‘simply military authority, exercised in accordance with the laws and usages of war,’ and that the U.S. Supreme Court defines it as ‘the law of necessity in the actual presence of war’ . . . Upon the actual scene of war, martial law becomes indistinguishable from military government." (Willoughby, The Constitutional Law of the United States, 2nd ed., 1939, vol. 3, pp. 1595-1597).

30. See 45 Mich. Law Review 87.

31. Winthrop, id., p. 820.

32. Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 1, 12 L. ed. 581, 600 (1849).

33. President Marcos writes: "The compelling necessity [of the imposition of martial law in the Philippines] arises out of the seven grave threats to the existence of the Republic: the communist rebellion, the rightist conspiracy, the Muslim secessionist movement, the rampant corruption on all levels of society, the criminal and criminal-political syndicates � including the private armies � deteriorating economy and the increasing social justice." (Ferdinand E. Marcos, Note on the New Society of the Philippines 98 (1973)).

34. L-33964, Dec. 11, 1971, 42 SCRA 448.

35. People v. Ferrer, L-32613-14, Dec. 27, 1972, 48 SCRA 382, 405: "In the Philippines the character of the Communist Party has been the object of continuing scrutiny by this Court. In 1932 we found the Communist Party of the Philippines to be an illegal association. In 1969 we again found that the objective of the Party was the ‘overthrow of the Philippine Government by armed struggle and to establish in the Philippines a communist form of government similar to that of Soviet Russia and Red China.’ More recently, in Lansang v. Garcia, we noted the growth of the Communist Party of the Philippines and the organization of Communist fronts among youth organizations such as the Kabataang Makabayan (KM) and the emergence of the New People’s Army. After meticulously reviewing the evidence, we said: ‘We entertain, therefore, no doubts about the existence of a sizeable group of men who have publicly risen in arms to overthrow the government and have thus been and still are engaged in rebellion against the Government of the Philippines.’ "

36. People v. Evangelista, 57 Phil. 375 (1932) (illegal association); People v. Evangelista, 57 Phil. 354 (1932) rebellion and sedition); People v. Capadocia, 57 Phil. 372 (1932) (rebellion and sedition); People v. Feleo, 57 Phil. 451 (1932) (inciting to sedition); People v. Nabong, 57 Phil. 455 (1932) (inciting to sedition).

37. People v. Lava, L-4974, May 16, 1969, 28 SCRA 72 (rebellion); People v. Hernandez, L-6025, May 30, 1964, 11 SCRA 223 (rebellion); Lava v. Gonzales, L-23048, July 31, 1964, 11 SCRA 650 (rebellion); People v. Capadocia, L-4907, June 29, 1963, 8 SCRA 301 (rebellion).

38. Montenegro v. Castañeda, 91 Phil. 882 (1952).

39. L-31687, Feb. 26, 1970, 31 SCRA 730 (with Castro and Fernando, JJ . dissenting).

40. Supra, note 19.

41. Id., at 485-486.

42. Id., at 486-487.

43. The Times Journal, Bullentin Today and Daily Express, on Wednesday, August 28, 1974, carried news of a nationwide arms-smuggling network being operated by the Communist Party of the Philippines in collaboration with a foreign-based source. The Department of National Defense reported that several arms-smuggling vessels had been seized, that the network had acquired several trucking services for its illegal purposes, and that about P2 million had so far been expended for this operation by a foreign source. The Department stressed that "the clandestine network is still operating with strong indications that several arms landings have already been made." The Department also revealed that the military has "launched necessary countermeasures in order to dismantle in due time this extensive anti-government operation." The Department finally confirmed the arrest of 38 subversives, including the following 13 persons who occupy important positions in the hierarchy of the Communist movement in the Philippines: Manuel Chiongson, Fidel V. Agcaoili, Danilo Vizmanos, Dante Simbulan, Andy Perez, Norman Quimpo, Fernando Tayag, Bonifacio P. Ilagan, Jose F. Lacaba, Domingo M. Luneta, Mila Garcia, Ricardo Ferrer and Dolores Feria.

The Times Journal, Bullentin Today and Daily Express, on Thursday, August 29, 1974, carried the news that a secret arm of the Communist Party of the Philippines engaged exclusively in the manufacture of explosives for sabotage and other anti-government operations have been uncovered by the military, following a series of raids by government security agents on underground houses, two of which are business establishments providing funds for the purchase of chemicals and other raw materials for the manufacture of explosives. The documents seized in the raids indicated that the "explosives movement" was a separate subversive group organized in early 1972 under the direct supervision of the CPP military arm and was composed of elite members knowledgeable in explosives and chemical research.

The Time Journal, Bulletin Today and Daily Express, on Sunday, September 1, 1974, carried news of a nationwide "communist-insurgent conspiracy" to "unite all groups opposing the New Society, arm them and urge them to fight and overthrow the government, and establish a coalition government under the leadership of the Communist Party of the Philippines." According to documents seized by the military, "local communists and other insurgents stepped up efforts in mid-1973 to set up a so-called National Democratic Front." The Department of National Defense revealed that the armed forces are continuing military operations in Cotabato, Lanao, Sulu and Zamboanga.

44. 35 Colo. 154, 91 Pac. 738, 740 (1905).

45. WHO v. Aquino, L-35131, Nov. 29, 1972, 48 SCRA 242.

46. Willoughby calls this situation "martial law in sensu stricture." (Willoughby, The Constitutional Law of the United States, 2nd ed., 1939, Vol. 3, pp. 1586 and 1595).

47. The corresponding provision in the 1973 Constitution is art. IX, sec. 12.

48. See 5 Laurel, Proceedings of the Philippine Constitutional Convention, 249-259 (1966).

49. President Jose P. Laurel, in a speech on the draft of the 1935 Constitution, gave as reasons for the adoption of the Commander-in-Chief Clause (a) the desire of the members of the 1934 Constitutional Convention to afford the state with an effective means for self-defense (the experience of the Latin-American countries was an object lesson for the Convention), and (b) the sense of the Convention that the executive power should he made stronger (Malcolm and Laurel, Philippine Constitutional Law, p. 200, footnote no. 4).

50. Barcelon v. Baker, 5 Phil. 87 (1905).

51. 91 Phil. 882 (1952).

52. L-33964, Dec. 11, 1971, 42 SCRA 448.

53. Sterling v. Constantin, 278 U.S. 378, 77 L. ed. 375 (1932); Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheat, 19, 6 L. ed. 537 (1827); Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 1, 12 L. ed. 681 (1849); Moyer v. Peabody, 212 U.S. 78, 53 L. ed. 410 (1809).

54. 4 Wall. 2, 18 L. ed. 281 (1866).

55. 327 U.S. 304, 90 L. ed. 688 (1946).

56. White was convicted of embezzlement, while Duncan was convicted of brawling.

57. Kin, The Legality of Martial Law in Hawaii, 30 California L. Rev. 599, 627 (1942).

58. Montenegro v. Castañeda, 91 Phil. 882 (1952).

59. Fairman, The Law of Martial Rule and the National Emergency, 55 Harv. L. Rev. 1253-1254 (1942).

60. Rossiter, The Supreme Court and Commander-in-Chief, 36 (1951).

61. Winthrop, id., p. 817; see also Elphinstone v. Bedreechund, I Knapp. P.C. 316; D.F. Marais v. The General Officer Commanding the Lines of Communication of the Colony (i.e., the Cape of Good Hope), 1902 Appeal Cases 109; 14 Encyclopedia Britannica, p. 977 ( 1969); 14 Encyclopedia Britannica, p. 985 (1955).

62. 17 Sup. Ct. Rep., Cape of Good Hope, 340 (1900), cited by Charles Fairman in The Law of Martial Rule, Chapter 10.

63. Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 1, 12 L. ed. 581, 600 (1849).

64. 212 U.S. 78, 53 L. ed. 410 (1909).

65. 287 U.S. 378, 77 L. ed. 375 (1932).

66. 35 Colo. 159, 85 Pac. 190 (1904).

67. "The proclamation [of martial law] is a declaration of an existent fact and a warning by the authorities that they have been forced against their will to have recourse to strong means to suppress disorder and restore peace. It has, as Thurman Arnold has written, merely ‘emotional effect’ and cannot itself make up for the absence of the conditions necessary for the initiation of martial law." (Clinton L. Rossiter, Constitutional Dictatorship (Crisis Government in the Modern Democracies), p. 146 (1948).

68. 1973 Const., Art. IV, sec. 15.

69. Id., Art. XVII, sec. 3(2).

70. Javellana v. Executive Secretary, L-36142, March 31, 1973, 50 SCRA 30.

71. Clinton L. Rossiter, Constitutional Dictatorship (Crisis Government in the Mordern Democracies), pp. 145-146 (1948).

72. Frederick B. Wiener, A Practical Manual of Martial Law, p. 8 (1940). (See also The Suspension of the Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus: Its Justification and Duration by Flerida Ruth Pineda and Augusto Ceasar Espiritu, 22 Philippine Law Journal, No. 1, February 1952, pp. 19, 37).

73. By General Order No. 3 dated September 22, 1972, as amended by General Order No. 3-A of the same date, the President ordered, inter alia, that "the Judiciary shall continue to function in accordance with its present organization and personnel, and shall try and decide in accordance with existing laws all criminal and civil cases, except the following cases: 1. Those involving the validity, legality, or constitutionality of Proclamation No. 1081, dated September 21, 1972, or of any decree, order or acts issued, promulgated or performed by me or by my duly designated representative pursuant thereto."cralaw virtua1aw library

74. Ferdinand E. Marcos, Notes on the New Society of the Philippines, 99, 100 (1973).